Acute And Chronic Forms Of Inflammation Biology Essay

Acute And Chronic Forms Of Inflammation Biology Essay Katharine Buzzbee is a pleasant young girl of 9 years old. She was brought to the health center with complaints of sore throat with difficulty swallowing. Her mother states that Katharine has had similar symptoms three separate times this year. The illnesses begin with irritation in the throat that progress to pain. The pain radiates to her ears and she generally develops a fever during the course of each attack. The patient also has a history of developing frequent colds where she experiences headaches, a stuffy nose and frequent sneezing. Her older brother and sister have both recently had the common cold. The patient is otherwise healthy with no major illnesses or injuries. Clinical manifestations: On examination, Katharines palatine tonsils are swollen, red and surrounded by exudate. She has a temperature of 101.1Â °F and complains of a running nose and headache. She appears tired and isnt as energetic as in our previous encounters. Diagnosis: acute tonsillitis. Throat culture confirmed strep. bacterial infection. Etiology: Acute tonsillitis is generally caused by a viral infection1, most commonly caused by common cold viruses such as: adenovirus, rhinovirus, influenza, coronavirus, respiratory syncytial virus. The Epstein-Barr virus, herpes simplex virus, cytomegalovirus and HIV occasionally manifest as tonsillitis. The second cause of acute tonsillitis is bacterial1 (about 30% of patients). The common bacterium is group A Beta hemolytic streptoccal. Other strains of bacteria are less common. The patient listed above has this type of infection. Pathogenesis: virus or bacteria attacks tonsil tissue exiting the response of innate immunity and adaptive immunity of T and B cells contained in the tonsils. The lymphocytes fight the infection, which leads to inflammation. As long as the lymphocytes and other cells can weaken the virus/bacteria the damage to the cells within the tonsils will remain reversible. Treatment: 10-day course of oral penicillin2, rest and hydration. Prognosis: symptoms should resolve during course of treatment. If frequent onset of tonsillitis continues tonsillectomy may be recommended. Inflammatory response The bacteria is ingested or inhaled and attaches to the palatine tonsils (injury). At the gross level the tonsils become swollen with erythema causing pain and difficulty completing normal tasks such as swallowing. In the study by Liljaa, Raisanenb and Stenfors3, the researchers studied bacterial and epithelial cells from palatine tonsils of nine patients with positive streptococcus pyogenes infection. The reported findings showed, S. pyogenes could be identified both in the mucous layer covering the tonsils and attached to the surface epithelial cells. Long chains of coccus-shaped bacteria could be seen encroaching on the epithelial cell borders. S. pyogenes can apparently penetrate the mucous barrier, attach to the epithelial cells, spread from cell to cell and possibly penetrate into the outermost layer of the epithelial cells. These events in turn provoke cytokine production and/or complement activation, which induce inflammatory reaction in the tonsillar tissue (activation). Dead bacteria and bacterial debris will remain at the site of the infection and must be removed (phagocytosis) from this area by neutrophils and macrophages5. Once the bacterium has been removed through phagocytes the tonsillar tissue will resume its normal form through resolution (healing process). Swelling and pain will cease. Chronic inflammation: Ulcerative Collitis Case study Jedediah Jones is a 24-year-old student pursing a degree in chiropractic medicine. He presents today with abdominal pain and frequent diarrhea containing mucus and blood. The onset of these symptoms began 2 months ago, but Jedediah decided to seek treatment when his frequent bowel movements began to disrupt his studies. Patient states that on average he has approximately 8 bowel movements per day, most frequently occurring after a meal. His abdominal pain is most severe before a bowel movement, but remains constant at the pain level of 4 out of 10. Patient says pain is 6 out of 10 at its worse. Patient attributes the symptoms to his newly adopted diet mostly consisting of fast food. Until recently he lived at home where all his meals were homemade. Patient has experienced an increased level of stress since beginning his studies (6 months ago) and subsequently quit smoking cigarettes. Patient exercises regularly, but has experienced a decrease in energy levels since the onset of symptoms. Patient denies other illness or injuries and is currently not taking any medication. Patients twin brother was recently diagnosed with Crohns disease and his maternal grandfather died of colon cancer at 48 years old. Clinical manifestations: LLQ tender upon palpation and entire abdomen appears distended. Patient claims 8 bowel movements per day with a watery consistency containing mucus and blood. Conjuctiva and finger nail beds appear pale. Diagnosis: ulcerative colitis, confirmed by positive biopsy removed during sigmoidoscopy. Inflammation of bowel appeared to extend no further than the descending colon with most severe inflammation and ulceration in the sigmoid section. Stool cultures ruled out parasitic infection. Etiology: the cause of ulcerative colitis is unknown, but factors such as genetics7, psychological stress, smoking cessation and poor diet have been attributed to onset of disease. Pathogenesis: as stated in the pathology textbook7, Most investigators believe that [ulcerative colitis and Crohn disease] result from a combination of defects in host interactions with intestinal microbiota, intestinal epithelial dysfunction, and aberrant mucosal immune responses. Treatment: Sulfasalazine 2 pills by mouth, 3 times per day. Rowasa (mesalamine) rectal suspension enema, at bedtime until bleeding stops. Prognosis: continue medication until symptoms have resolved completely. Maintenance therapy will be recommended indefinitely to avoid relapse. Inflammatory response Podolsky8 explains in his article that inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is believed to be the result of an ongoing activation of the mucosal immune system. This abnormal response is likely due to the defects in both the intestinal epithelium and the mucosal immune system (injury). Podolsky8 clearly defines the inflammatory response of IBD, Chronic, recurrent intestinal inflammation appears to result from stimulation of the mucosal immune system by-products of commensal bacteria in the lumen. Stimulation may occur as a result of the penetration of bacterial products through the mucosal barrier, leading to their direct interaction with immune cells, especially dendritic cells and lymphocyte populations (chemotaxis). Alternatively, bacterial products may stimulate the surface epithelium, possibly through receptors that are components of the innate immune-response system; the epithelium can, in turn, produce cytokines and chemokines that recruit and activate mucosal immune cells (transmigration). Cellular changes occur in ulcerative colitis as the chronic inflammation may lead to mucosal atrophy7, damage to the muscularis propria and disrupt neuromuscular function leading to colonic dilation and risk of perforation (cellular changes). As stated in the textbook7, The inflammatory process is diffuse and generally limited to the mucosa and superficial submucosa. Submucosal fibrosis, mucosal atrophy and distorted mucosal architecture remain a residual of healed disease but histology may also revert to near normal after prolonged remission (healing process).

Analysis around Freuds view of the human mind Essay

This essay aims to discuss the key ideas behind Freud’s theories, including his model of the mind, psychosexual development, repression and cure through therapeutic techniques. Sigman Freud (1856 to 1939) was an Austrian physician, with an interest in the workings of the subconscious mind. â€Å"Freud spent his life trying to produce coherent a set of theories to explain all human behavioural, but never achieved his goal of one grand theory, (Benson, 1999, P48).  According to Freud, the mind has three levels of consciousness. The conscious equates to 1/7th of the mind, being ‘the awareness we have when awake.’ The pre-conscious, is a boundary containing memories of dreams, and causing slips of the tongue. Finally, the unconscious. Making up 6/7ths of the mind and containing ‘thoughts completely hidden and unavailable to us,’ (Benson, 1999, P47). Freud’s model divides the mind in to three parts: the Id, Ego and Superego. He believed that the first to develop was the Id, operating on the pleasure principle, in the unconscious mind. The Id ‘is the dark, inaccessible part of our personality,’ (Freud, 1933 p27). It drives a baby to seek pleasure, like ‘drink food warmth and comfort and avoid the unpleasureable, like hunger, being wet and cold†¦ The Id is selfish and ‘not concerned with social rules, but only with self gratification,’ (Cardwell et al, 1997 p549). The Id is made of two components. Benson (1999, P51) describes the first, Libido, as ‘the inborn energy we have that motivates us to survive.’ The second component, Freud named Thanatos, and described as the death instinct, expressed through aggression towards self and others. Cardwell et al (1997) explain that the Id’s discharge of energy and excitation without regard for consequence is known as primary proc ess thinking. At around two years old the human mind recognises the need to be realistic and plan for the future, rather than surviving on primary instinct. Thus the ego develops. Operating on the reality principle, it battles the Id for control of behaviour. Unlike the Id, the Ego has a partly conscious, secondary thought process. ‘The ego is still, however, essentially selfish, i.e. protecting the individual from harm,’ (Benson, 1999, p51). At around 3, we start to absorb influence from our parents and the Super Ego begins to develop. The Super Ego expands from our learned morals and the conventions of society. ‘Super means above – looking down and monitoring the â€Å"Id-Ego† Battle,’ (Benson, 1999, P52). Like the Ego, the Super Ego is partly conscious; however it is not selfish and considers others too. As it develops it becomes ‘our social conscience and guides us towards sociably acceptable behaviour.’ (Cardwell et al, 1997, p549).  Freud was responsible for modern society’s understanding of the effects childhood experiences can have on adult personalities. He split the childhood into five stages of psychosexual development. During the first, the Oral stage from 0 to 2 years, the only drive present is the Id. Focused on survival, the Id drives the baby to feed by suckling. Thus the mouth becomes the main source of pleasure. Benson (1999, p52) states that ‘through oral satisfaction the baby develops trust and an optimistic personality.’  From 2 to 3 years, the child becomes aware of its bowels and how to control them. Here begins the Anal Stage, as ‘the focus of gratification shifts to the anus†¦ aiding with potty training,’ a vital step to independence and survival, (Benson, 1999, P54). However, withholding elimination goes against the Id’s nature of random discharge without regard for consequence. This results in the requirement for an ego to develop, ‘and as such has important implications in the personality later in life,’ (Cardwell et al, p550, 1997). The phallic stage, from 3 to 5 years, starts when children become aware of sexual differences and become curious about their own genitals. Benson (1999) explains that boys will develop differently to girls from here on. Boys will develop Oedipus Complex and unconsciously experienced a sequence of sub stages. Firstly he will develop a strong desire for his mother. Then, after noticing the strong (sexual) bond between her and his father, he will become deeply jealous of his father and hate him. The boy’s fear of his father uncovering these thoughts instils a fear of the ultimate punishment, castration. The boy resolves that to avoid castration by pleasing his farther, and at the same time impress his mother, he must become like his father. This is called identification. Girls, having unconsciously concluded that they have already been castrated, do not develop the same fears. Though, ‘since their mother is the same, girls also end up identifying, i.e. adopting their mother’s morality and gender roles. This was always rather vague’ and known as the Electra Complex (Benson, 1999, p56).

Business Law - S 18 of the Australian Consumer Law within the Competition and Consumer Act 2010 (ACL) Free Essay Example, 2000 words

Enforcement of the provision Section 18 of ACL is arguably wide in its application, considering that it takes care of any individuals who participate in deceptive behaviour and or those intending to do so. Owing to the fact that the Competition and Consumer Act 2010 (CCA) is a statutory provision, section 51 of the Australian Constitution limit its enforcement. Nonetheless, section 18 of the ACL is premised upon the power of the business organizations as enshrined in the Constitution to operate freely in legal business and act in good faith. Mardirossian, Robbins and Leibler (2010) noted that the condition imposed by â€Å"trade or commerce† is important to its enforcement. As Heinrich and Bracken (2009) have argued, parties may be indirectly liable for violations of s18 if the court establishes their knowledge of the breach before its commission or omission. Each of the federations and regions of Australia are covered under fair trading laws, which draws several similarities to the ACL, but whose mandat es are limited. Misleading and Deceptive practices The outlaw of misleading practices as set out in section 18(1) of the ACL should be interpreted together with section 4(2)(a) of the CCA in order to give it a complete, productive meaning. We will write a custom essay sample on Business Law - S 18 of the Australian Consumer Law within the Competition and Consumer Act 2010 (ACL) or any topic specifically for you Only $17.96 $11.86/page As Morrison, Abraham and Sheargold (2010) have indicated, to be deceptive or misleading, the practice must comprise a distortion of fact capable of enticing the relevant victim into arriving at an erroneous judgment. In most cases, misrepresentations are inaccurate statements of information. Nonetheless, statements that are credible may also have the intent to misrepresentations if their use is capable of swaying consumers into making mistakes. The appropriate test applied in common law with regard to misleading and deception practices is whether the practice is in itself erroneous; or has the potential to create an erroneous judgment in the consumer (Schaper, 2009/2010).

Strategic Management Accounting - 2595 Words

Tables of content Page No Introduction 03 Models and concepts affecting the pricing decision 03 Approaches to pricing 04 i. Cost–volume–profit analysis 05 ii. Cost plus mark-up pricing 07 iii. Target rate of return pricing 07 Standard costing and Variance analysis 08 The role of standard costing and variance analysis 12 Limitations of Standard Costing and variance analysis 12 Evaluation of Activity Based Costing system 13 Advantages of ABC system 17 Limitations of ABC system 17 References 18 Introduction This report is mainly focusing to understand and analyse the issues involved in Manac plc where by the company is not meeting target budgeted profit. This is a†¦show more content†¦Now let us look at some of the decision making models which affect the pricing decisions regarding our electrical goods made by us. At last, we should understand the mechanics of making pricing calculations of our standard electrical goods based on an appropriate model. Approaches to pricing There are many approaches to pricing and accounting information can be used for these approaches. They are; i. Cost–volume–profit analysis, ii. Cost-plus pricing, iii. Target rate of return pricing. i. Cost–volume–profit analysis This method known as CVP analysis is used to develop and understand the relationship between revenue, cost and sales volume. Thus, CVP is concerned with understanding of the relationship between changes in the number of units sold and changes in selling prices and costs. Typical issues that CVP answers are: * Effect on profits of changes in selling price or the volume of sales, * If we incur additional costs, changes that we should make to our selling price or to the volume that we need to sell (P.M. Collier 2003). CVP can be used as a sensitivity analysis which is an approach to understand as to how changes in one variable (e.g. selling price) affect to other variables (e.g. Sales Volume). Using this analysis which is illustrated bellow, we can have a better understanding of product’s selling price of Manac plc. Illustration 1 Target Budgeted profit of Manac plc is  £100,000 on sales of 20,000 units ofShow MoreRelatedStrategic Management Accounting13457 Words   |  54 Pagesof this journal is available at www.emeraldinsight.com/0951-3574.htm AAAJ 21,2 Strategic management accounting: how far have we come in 25 years? Kim Langï ¬ eld-Smith Monash University, Melbourne, Australia Abstract Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to provide a review of the origins of strategic management accounting and to assess the extent of adoption and â€Å"success† of strategic management accounting (SMA). 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